A Comparative Analysis of Geothermal Energy Growth in Relation to Indigenous Communities in Kenya and Canada

By Ravesa Demneri, Albania

Abstract:

Geothermal energy, characterized as the heat that comes from within the earth, is an extremely reliable renewable source of energy (Hu). Its temporal advantage over other sources such as wind and solar is of primary importance, as the development of all renewables is one of the most pressing challenges in combating the Earth’s deteriorating climate, considering that greenhouse gas emissions must decline by 45% by 2030 in order to limit global warming to 1.5°C (“The Paris Agreement”). At the same time, this growth must be sustainable and in accordance with all community members’ wants and practices. A considerable amount of land near geothermal resources is necessary for harnessing the energy, as geothermal power plants have to be built. Often, this results in the land’s inhabitants, such as Indigenous communities, being targeted and forced into displacement. Such a situation has happened in Kenya, particularly in the Olkaria area, where the Maasai community have been coerced into resettlement (Gai et al. 14). On the other hand, Tu Deh-Kah Geothermal, based in Fort Nelson, British Columbia, is the first Indigenousowned geothermal energy project in Canada, and is expected to start commercial operations in 2026, thus presenting a way for Indigenous communities to empower their communities through sustainable energy (Huang et al. 8). Utilizing a comparative approach, this study analyzes how each geothermal plant came into creation, the factors that led to displacement in Kenya and cooperation in Canada, and the differences and similarities between the respective Indigenous communities and the governments. Through the lens of Canada and Tu Deh-Kah Geothermal, this project evaluates whether a similar approach can be followed in Kenya, and whether a system of growth can be instilled that represents and respects Indigenous communities.

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Literature Review:

When it comes to assessing the situation and the significance of geothermal development, previous studies have highlighted how resettlement has negatively impacted the lives of the Maasai people in Kenya. In a 2023 research paper “New Homes, New Challenges: The Experience of Resettled Maasai Pastoralists of RAPland Village, Olkaria Kenya,” the researchers utilized household studies, key informant interviews, focus groups discussions, and field observations to determine how the forced relocation for the purpose of building the Olkaria geothermal plants had impacted the Maasai people. Focusing on a pastoral community, the study concluded that, after the relocation, lack of “access to water, poor pastures, grazing terrain (gulleys), wildlife predation, drought, and livestock diseases became the significant constraints affecting livestock productivity,” overall jeopardizing people’s livelihoods and nutritional security (Gai et al. 14). When it came to identifying the underlying cause for these negative consequences, “inadequate planning of resettlement action plans” on behalf of the Kenyan government was considered of prime importance (Gai et al. 15-16). This study is especially important for the research proposal as it utilizes personal and community perspectives to comment on the issue of Indigenous rights and renewable energy development. The research highlights how resettlement leads to marginalization, social disconnection, and risk of life for pastoral communities, highlighting the importance of proper planning and consideration.

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On the other hand, the recognition of Indigenous communities and their inclusion with regards to renewable growth can present a viable way for sustainable development, as presented by the case of the Tu Deh-Kah (TDK) geothermal plant in northeast British Columbia, Canada, adjacent to the town of Fort Nelson, known for its cold and long winters. Tu Deh-Kah is led and advocated by the Indigenous Fort Nelson First Nation (FNFN) community, which initially proposed the plant creation and also named it after a Dene phrase for boiling water (Bulowski).

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Beyond the direct Indigenous involvement, TDK will be beneficial for the entire British Columbia community. As it is situated in a northern, remote, cold community, it will utilize geothermal heat to contribute to food security through agricultural and/or greenhouse development, as stated by Canada’s Geothermal update in 2023 (Huang et al. 9). The reasons that led to the creation of TDK come as a result of governmental support in the form of grants. The project received significant funding support from federal and provincial grant programs, most notably the Emerging Renewables Power Program (ERPP) through Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), a federal government department (Huang et al. 8). The supporting framework behind TDK shows two important components of the intersection between geothermal growth and Indigenous communities: firstly, location selection and community recognition is of prime importance, in order to select areas that have geothermal potential and also incorporate the recognition of Indigenous communities; secondly, government-supported grants are incredibly important in order for Indigenous communities to maintain their agency and ownership of geothermal plants. This dual framework of recognition and economic support will be further developed in the methodology of the research proposal.

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Methodology:​ 

This project will utilize a mixed method approach, with qualitative research focused on analyzing documents of national and international policies, environmental regulations and land laws. A primary document of focus is the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), which was adopted on 13 September 2007 (Oldham and Anne Frank 5). UNDRIP set out the international human rights of Indigenous peoples, particularly defining Indigenous rights in relation to the environment and development. Article 32 specifically outlines that “Indigenous peoples have the right to determine and develop priorities and strategies for the development or use of their lands or territories and other resources” (UNDRIP 23). The connection between the preferences of Indigenous peoples and development goals is important for the advancement of geothermal energy, as it necessitates an equal relationship and recognition between the involved parties. As this proposal involves two countries, using an international document makes the methodology applicable to both.

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Continuing on with the qualitative and individualized framework, this study will reach out to members of the TDK project and ask them about their experiences, while incorporating ethical principles and measures of the use of human subjects in research. A primary person of interest is Taylor Behn-Tsakoza, community liaison of TDK, as her experiences and approach to conflicts that involve Indigenous communities could provide insights into whether there was a breach of rights in Kenya, and how other geothermal projects can be carried out properly. In addition to individualized testimonies, the project will use Indigenous methodologies through examining the creation of narratives and working with Indigenous governance protocols that emphasize interconnectedness, stewardship, and respect in order to confront colonial legacies, present in both Kenya and Canada (Liew and Lipscombe 671).

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For its quantitative methodology, the study will focus on comparing statistics of the number of geothermal projects, land use outcomes, and economic growth, and running inferential tests such as analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to determine whether there exists a statistical significance between the relocation of Indigenous communities and livelihood measures. The study will also factor in the intersectionality of gender, ethnicity and class, as class and land have become important signifiers in pastoral social relations, such as those of the Maasai community, and should be considered as covariates (Hughes and Rogei 176-177).

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References :

Bulowski, Natasha, and Local Journalism Initiative Reporter. “A First Nation’s Geothermal Project Shows How Fossil Fuels Can Power the next Seven Generations.” The Canadian Press, Canadian Press Enterprises Inc, 2024.

Gai, Abraham Biar, et al. “New Homes, New Challenges: The Experience of Resettled Maasai Pastoralists of RAPland Village, Olkaria Kenya.” Cross Current International Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, vol. 5, no. 2, 2023, pp. 14–24, https://doi.org/10.36344/ccijavs.2023.v05i02.001.

Hu, S. (2024, December 3). Geothermal energy: The advantages, the challenges, and the potential. Natural Resources Defense Council. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/geothermal-energyadvantages-challenges-and-potential

Huang, Katherine, et al. “Canada’s Geothermal Energy Update in 2023.” Energies (Basel), vol. 17, no. 8, 2024, p. 1807, https://doi.org/10.3390/en17081807.

Hughes, Lotte, and Rogei, Daniel. “Feeling the Heat: Responses to Geothermal Development in Kenya’s Rift Valley.” Journal of Eastern African Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, 2020, pp. 165–84, https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2020.1716292.

Liew, Chern Li, and Lipscombe, Ailsa. “Centering Dialog and Care in Digital Indigenous Knowledge Stewardship: Of Relationality, Responsibility, and Respect.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, vol. 75, no. 6, 2024, pp. 671–85, https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24873.

Oldham, Paul, and Anne Frank, Miriam. “‘We the Peoples...’: The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.” Anthropology Today, vol. 24, no. 2, 2008, pp. 5–9, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2008.00569.x.

“The Paris Agreement.” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement. Accessed 30 Apr. 2025.

“United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).” United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Social Inclusion, United Nations, social.desa.un.org/issues/indigenous-peoples/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-ofindigenous-peoples. Accessed 30 Apr. 2025.